• Intervention
    In adults, how effective (in terms of client adherence and weight and loss maintenance) is a regular meal and snack pattern?
    • Conclusion

      Several studies show that consumption of four to five meals or snacks per day is associated with reduced or no obesity risk, while three or fewer and six or more meals or snacks per day may result in increased risk of obesity, depending on gender. Higher eating frequency is related to lower total daily energy intake and body weights in men, but in women the data is less conclusive.

      Five studies demonstrate that consumption of greater energy intake in the morning vs. the evening is associated with lower body weights and greater loss of weight. Further research is needed on the distribution of calories consumed at meals and snacks during the day.

    • Grade: II
      • Grade I means there is Good/Strong evidence supporting the statement;
      • Grade II is Fair;
      • Grade III is Limited/Weak;
      • Grade IV is Expert Opinion Only;
      • Grade V is Not Assignable.
      • High (A) means we are very confident that the true effect lies close to that of the estimate of the effect;
      • Moderate (B) means we are moderately confident in the effect estimate;
      • Low (C) means our confidence in the effect estimate is limited;
      • Very Low (D) means we have very little confidence in the effect estimate.
      • Ungraded means a grade is not assignable.
    In adults, how effective (in terms of client adherence and weight loss and maintenance) is eating breakfast?
    • Conclusion

      Cross-sectional studies and epidemiological data from the USDA Nationwide Food Consumption Survey, NHANES III and the SEASONS study report that the prevalence of breakfast skipping ranges between 3.6 and 25%. Skipping breakfast is associated with a higher BMI and increased obesity risk, despite lower reported daily energy intakes. Two randomized controlled trials show that breakfast eaters had a greater reduction in impulsive snacking and ate less at later meals.

      Normal weight subjects and people maintaining weight loss tend to eat breakfast regularly and generally consume a breakfast consisting of high-fiber cereal that contributes approximately 20% of daily energy intake. However, breakfasts that are very high in energy have also been associated with higher BMI.

      Further research on the energy contribution of breakfast, the composition of breakfast and the relationship between breakfast and weight management is needed, as well as research on subjects from different ethnic groups.

    • Grade: II
      • Grade I means there is Good/Strong evidence supporting the statement;
      • Grade II is Fair;
      • Grade III is Limited/Weak;
      • Grade IV is Expert Opinion Only;
      • Grade V is Not Assignable.
      • High (A) means we are very confident that the true effect lies close to that of the estimate of the effect;
      • Moderate (B) means we are moderately confident in the effect estimate;
      • Low (C) means our confidence in the effect estimate is limited;
      • Very Low (D) means we have very little confidence in the effect estimate.
      • Ungraded means a grade is not assignable.