Vegetarian Nutrition

VN: Types and Diversity of Vegetarian Diets (2009)

Types and Diversity of Vegetarian Diets

The practice and study of vegetarian dietary patterns is anything but uniform or static. The evidence analysis for this topic goes beyond simply identifying common types of vegetarian diets. Rather, the goal is to help the reader get a sense of the range of factors involved in "being vegetarian."A major point of consensus among the articles analyzed here is that within vegetarian diets there is wide variation in foods eaten, dietary practices and dietary beliefs and motivations. Vegetarian dietary practices vary by culture, food availability, region, age and motivation. Additionally, vegetarian diets change over time with many vegetarians becoming either more restrictive or more lenient. All of these factors may be critically important for the health care professional serving vegetarian clients or patients.

• Assessment
  What are common motivations for being vegetarian and how do these motivations affect dietary practices in adults and children?

  • Conclusion

    Although motivations for following a vegetarian lifestyle are complex, research on Western populations identifies common reasons for being vegetarian, including: Ethical and environmental concerns, religious concerns, health reasons and gustatory reasons. Some individuals with eating disorders may adopt a vegetarian diet as a means of weight control. Research also indicates that dietary patterns vary depending on the motivation behind a vegetarian lifestyle.

  • Grade: II
    • Grade I means there is Good/Strong evidence supporting the statement;
    • Grade II is Fair;
    • Grade III is Limited/Weak;
    • Grade IV is Expert Opinion Only;
    • Grade V is Not Assignable.
    • High (A) means we are very confident that the true effect lies close to that of the estimate of the effect;
    • Moderate (B) means we are moderately confident in the effect estimate;
    • Low (C) means our confidence in the effect estimate is limited;
    • Very Low (D) means we have very little confidence in the effect estimate.
    • Ungraded means a grade is not assignable.
  • Evidence Summary: Motivations for Vegetarianism
    • Detail
    • Quality Rating Summary
      For a summary of the Quality Rating results, click here.
    • Worksheets
      • Aarnio K, Lindeman M. Magical food and health beliefs: a portrait of believers and functions of the beliefs. Appetite. 2004 Aug; 43 (1): 65-74.
      • Barr SI, Chapman GE. Perceptions and practices of self-defined current vegetarian, former vegetarian and nonvegetarian women. J Am Diet Assoc. 2002 Mar; 102 (3): 354-360.
      • Bas, Murat; Karabudak, Efsun; Kiziltan, Gül. Vegetarianism and eating disorders: Association between eating attitudes and other psychological factors among Turkish adolescents. Appetite, Jun2005, Vol. 44 Issue 3, pp. 309-315.
      • Beardsworth A, Keil T. The vegetarian option: Varieties, conversions, motives and careers. Sociological Review, 1992; 40(2): 253-293.
      • Dagnelie PC, van Dusseldorp M, van Staveren WA, Hautvast JG. Effects of macrobiotic diets on linear growth in infants and children until 10 years of age. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1994 Feb; 48 (Suppl 1): S103-S111; discussion S111-S112.
      • Fessler D, Arguello A, Mekdara J, Macias R. Disgust sensitivity and meat consumption: a test of an emotivist account of moral vegetarianism. Appetite. 2003; 41: 31-41.
      • Greene-Finestone LS, Campbell MK, Gutmanis IA, Evers SE. Dietary intake among young adolescents in Ontario: associations with vegetarian status and attitude toward health. Prev Med. 2005 Jan; 40 (1): 105-111.
      • Greene-Finestone, L.S., Campbell, M.K., Evers, S.E., Gutmanis, I.A. Attitudes and health behavoirs of young adolescent omnivores and vegetarians: A school-based study. Appetite 2008; 51: 104-110.
      • Jabs, D., Devine, C., Sobal, J. (1998). Model of the Process of Adopting Vegetarian Diets: Health Vegetarians and Ethical Vegetarians. Journal of Nutrition Education. 30 (4): 196.
      • Kenyon PM, Barker ME. Attitudes towards meat-eating in vegetarian and non-vegetarian teenage girls in England--an ethnographic approach. Appetite. 1998 Apr; 30(2): 185-198.
      • Kim EHJ, Schroeder KM, Houser RF, Dwyer JT. Two small surveys, 25 years apart investigating motivations of dietary choice in two groups of vegetarians in the Boston area. J Am Diet Assoc. 1999; 99: 598-601.
      • Larsson CL, Rönnlund U, Johansson G, Dahlgren L. Veganism as status passage: The process of becoming a vegan among youths in Sweden. Appetite. 2003; 41: 61-68.
      • Lea E, Worsley A. The cognitive contexts of beliefs about the healthiness of meat. Public Health Nutr. 2002; 5 (1): 37-45.
      • Lea E, Worsley A. Benefits and barriers to the consumption of a vegetarian diet in Australia. Public Health Nutr. 2003 Aug; 6 (5): 505-511.
      • Martins Y, Pliner P, O'Connor R. Restrained eating among vegetarians: Does a vegetarian eating style mask concerns about weight? Appetite. 1999 Feb; 32 (1): 145-154.
      • Neumark-Sztainer D, Story M, Resnick MD, Blum RW. Adolescent vegetarians. A behavioral profile of a school-based population in Minnesota. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1997; 151(8): 833-838.
      • Perry CL, McGuire MT, Neumark-Sztainer D, Story M. Characteristics of vegetarian adolescents in a multiethnic urban population. J Adolesc Health. 2001 Dec; 29 (6): 406-416.
      • Santos ML, Booth DA. Influences on meat avoidance among British students. Appetite. 1996 Dec; 27(3): 197-205.
      • Spencer EH, Elon LK, Frank E. Personal and professional correlates of US medical students' vegetarianism. J Am Diet Assoc. 2007 Jan; 107(1): 72-78.
      • Worsley A, Skrzypiec G. Teenage vegetarianism: Beauty or the beast? Nutrition Research. 1997; 17 (3): 391-404.
  • Search Plan and Results: VN: Types of Vegetarian Diets 2008
     
  How do the individual dietary patterns and social definitions of vegetarianism change over time in adult and child vegetarians?

  • Conclusion

    Vegetarianism is a fluid concept. Research shows that it is common for individuals who consider themselves vegetarian to change dietary patterns over time, sometimes becoming more restrictive, sometimes less so. Additionally, societal perspectives on vegetarianism change over time. It is more common now for individuals to be vegetarian for ethical or environmental reasons vs. 30 years ago. Likewise, it is more common for research to focus on the health benefits of vegetarianism and plant-based diets than in decades past when the focus tended to be on potential nutrient deficiencies associated with vegetarian diets.

  • Grade: II
    • Grade I means there is Good/Strong evidence supporting the statement;
    • Grade II is Fair;
    • Grade III is Limited/Weak;
    • Grade IV is Expert Opinion Only;
    • Grade V is Not Assignable.
    • High (A) means we are very confident that the true effect lies close to that of the estimate of the effect;
    • Moderate (B) means we are moderately confident in the effect estimate;
    • Low (C) means our confidence in the effect estimate is limited;
    • Very Low (D) means we have very little confidence in the effect estimate.
    • Ungraded means a grade is not assignable.
  • Evidence Summary: Changing Definitions of Vegetarianism
    • Detail
    • Quality Rating Summary
      For a summary of the Quality Rating results, click here.
    • Worksheets
      • Barr SI, Chapman GE. Perceptions and practices of self-defined current vegetarian, former vegetarian and nonvegetarian women. J Am Diet Assoc. 2002 Mar; 102 (3): 354-360.
      • Beardsworth A, Keil T. The vegetarian option: Varieties, conversions, motives and careers. Sociological Review, 1992; 40(2): 253-293.
      • Dagnelie PC, van Dusseldorp M, van Staveren WA, Hautvast JG. Effects of macrobiotic diets on linear growth in infants and children until 10 years of age. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1994 Feb; 48 (Suppl 1): S103-S111; discussion S111-S112.
      • Draper A, Lewis J, Malhotra N, Wheeler E. The energy and nutrient intakes of different types of vegetarian: a case for supplements? Br J Nutr. 1993; 69: 3-19.
      • Jabs, D., Devine, C., Sobal, J. (1998). Model of the Process of Adopting Vegetarian Diets: Health Vegetarians and Ethical Vegetarians. Journal of Nutrition Education. 30 (4): 196.
      • Kim EHJ, Schroeder KM, Houser RF, Dwyer JT. Two small surveys, 25 years apart investigating motivations of dietary choice in two groups of vegetarians in the Boston area. J Am Diet Assoc. 1999; 99: 598-601.
      • Larsson CL, Rönnlund U, Johansson G, Dahlgren L. Veganism as status passage: The process of becoming a vegan among youths in Sweden. Appetite. 2003; 41: 61-68.
      • Sabate J. The contribution of vegetarian diets to health and disease: A paradigm shift? Am J Clin Nutr. 2003; 78 (suppl): 502S-507S.
  • Search Plan and Results: VN: Types of Vegetarian Diets 2008
     
• Intervention
  What types of vegetarian diets for adults and children are examined in the research?

  • Conclusion

    The two most common ways of defining vegetarian diets in the research are:

    Vegan diets: Diets devoid of all flesh foods,

    Vegetarian Diets:  Diets devoid of all flesh foods, but also include egg (ovo) and/or dairy (lacto) products.

    However, these very broad categories mask important variations within vegetarian diets and dietary practices. These variations within vegetarian diets make absolute categorization of vegetarian dietary practices difficult and may be one of the sources of unclear relationships between vegetarian diets and other factors.

  • Grade: II
    • Grade I means there is Good/Strong evidence supporting the statement;
    • Grade II is Fair;
    • Grade III is Limited/Weak;
    • Grade IV is Expert Opinion Only;
    • Grade V is Not Assignable.
    • High (A) means we are very confident that the true effect lies close to that of the estimate of the effect;
    • Moderate (B) means we are moderately confident in the effect estimate;
    • Low (C) means our confidence in the effect estimate is limited;
    • Very Low (D) means we have very little confidence in the effect estimate.
    • Ungraded means a grade is not assignable.
  • Evidence Summary: Types and Diversity of Vegetarian Diets
    • Detail
    • Quality Rating Summary
      For a summary of the Quality Rating results, click here.
    • Worksheets
      • Barr SI, Chapman GE. Perceptions and practices of self-defined current vegetarian, former vegetarian and nonvegetarian women. J Am Diet Assoc. 2002 Mar; 102 (3): 354-360.
      • Beardsworth A, Keil T. The vegetarian option: Varieties, conversions, motives and careers. Sociological Review, 1992; 40(2): 253-293.
      • Dagnelie PC, van Dusseldorp M, van Staveren WA, Hautvast JG. Effects of macrobiotic diets on linear growth in infants and children until 10 years of age. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1994 Feb; 48 (Suppl 1): S103-S111; discussion S111-S112.
      • Donovan UM, Gibson RS. Dietary intakes of adolescent females consuming vegetarian, semi-vegetarian, and omnivorous diets. J Adolesc Health. 1996 Apr; 18(4): 292-300.
      • Draper A, Lewis J, Malhotra N, Wheeler E. The energy and nutrient intakes of different types of vegetarian: a case for supplements? Br J Nutr. 1993; 69: 3-19.
      • Dwyer J. Convergence of plant-rich and plant-only diets. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999 Sep; 70(3 Suppl): 620S-622S.
      • Fessler D, Arguello A, Mekdara J, Macias R. Disgust sensitivity and meat consumption: a test of an emotivist account of moral vegetarianism. Appetite. 2003; 41: 31-41.
      • Greene-Finestone LS, Campbell MK, Gutmanis IA, Evers SE. Dietary intake among young adolescents in Ontario: associations with vegetarian status and attitude toward health. Prev Med. 2005 Jan; 40 (1): 105-111.
      • Greenwood DC, Cade JE, Draper A, Barrett JH, Calvert C, Greenhalgh A. Seven unique food consumption patterns identified among women in the UK Women's Cohort Study. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2000 Apr; 54(4): 314-320.
      • Hobbs, SH. Attitudes, practices and beliefs of individuals consuming a raw foods diet. Explore (NY). 2005 Jul; 1 (4): 272-277.
      • Jacobs C, Dwyer JT. Vegetarian children: Appropriate and inappropriate diets. Am J Clin Nutr. 1988; 48 (suppl): 811-818.
      • Larsson CL, Klock KS, Astrom AN, Haugejorden O, Johansson G. Food habits of young Swedish and Norwegian vegetarians and omnivores. Public Health Nutr. 2001; 4: 1,005-1,014.
      • Lea E, Worsley A. Benefits and barriers to the consumption of a vegetarian diet in Australia. Public Health Nutr. 2003 Aug; 6 (5): 505-511.
      • Melby CL, Toohey ML, Cebrick J. Blood pressure and blood lipids among vegetarian, semivegetarian, and nonvegetarian African Americans. Am J Clin Nutr. 1994; 59: 103-109.
      • Nardoto GB, Silva S, Kendall C, Ehleringer JR, Chesson LA, Ferraz ES, Moreira MZ, Ometto JP, Martinelli LA. Geographical patterns of human diet derived from stable-isotope analysis of fingernails. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2006 Sep; 131 (1): 137-146.
      • Padmadas SS, Dias JG, Willekens FJ. Disentangling women's responses on complex dietary intake patterns from an Indian cross-sectional survey: A latent class analysis. Public Health Nutr. 2006 Apr; 9 (2): 204-211.
      • Perry CL, McGuire MT, Neumark-Sztainer D, Story M. Characteristics of vegetarian adolescents in a multiethnic urban population. J Adolesc Health. 2001 Dec; 29 (6): 406-416.
      • Perry CL, McGuire MT, Neumark-Sztainer D, Story M. Adolescent vegetarians: how well do their dietary patterns meet the Healthy People 2010 objectives? Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2002; 156 (5): 431-437.
      • Sabate J. The contribution of vegetarian diets to health and disease: A paradigm shift? Am J Clin Nutr. 2003; 78 (suppl): 502S-507S.
      • Worsley A, Skrzypiec G. Teenage vegetarianism: Beauty or the beast? Nutrition Research. 1997; 17 (3): 391-404.
      • Worsley A, Skrzypiec G. Teenage vegetarianism: prevalence, social and cognitive contexts. Appetite. 1998 Apr; 30(2): 151-170.
  • Search Plan and Results: VN: Types of Vegetarian Diets 2008