AWM: Eating Frequency and Patterns (2013)

• Assessment
  What is the relationship between eating frequency and weight change (weight loss, weight gain and/or weight maintenance)?

  • Conclusion

    Research reports inconsistent results regarding the association between eating frequency and body weight. This may be due to the role of portion size, energy density or compensation of energy intake at subsequent eating occasions. In addition, the majority of observational research reports an association between higher evening energy intake and increased body weight, however this has not been confirmed in a limited number of intervention studies. Further intervention studies are needed on the distribution of calories consumed at meals and snacks throughout the day and its effect on body weight.

  • Grade: II
    • Grade I means there is Good/Strong evidence supporting the statement;
    • Grade II is Fair;
    • Grade III is Limited/Weak;
    • Grade IV is Expert Opinion Only;
    • Grade V is Not Assignable.
    • High (A) means we are very confident that the true effect lies close to that of the estimate of the effect;
    • Moderate (B) means we are moderately confident in the effect estimate;
    • Low (C) means our confidence in the effect estimate is limited;
    • Very Low (D) means we have very little confidence in the effect estimate.
    • Ungraded means a grade is not assignable.
  • Evidence Summary: What is the relationship between eating frequency and weight change (weight loss, weight gain and/or weight maintenance)?
    • Detail
    • Quality Rating Summary
      For a summary of the Quality Rating results, click here.
    • Worksheets
      • Al-Rethaiaa AS, Fahmy AE, Al-Shwaiyat NM. Obesity and eating habits among college students in Saudi Arabia: A cross-sectional study. Nutr J 2010; 9: 39.
      • Bes-Rastrollo M, Sanchez-Villegas A, Basterra-Gortari FJ, Nunez-Cordoba JM, Toledo E, Serrano-Martinez M. Prospective study of self-reported usual snacking and weight gain in a Mediterranean cohort: The SUN project. Clin Nutr 2010; 29 (3): 323-330.
      • de Zwaan M, Roerig DB, Crosby RD, Karaz S, Mitchell JE. Nighttime eating: A descriptive study. Int J Eat Disord. 2006; 39(3): 224-232.
      • Gluck ME, Venti CA, Salbe AD, Krakoff J. Nighttime eating: Commonly observed and related to weight gain in an inpatient food intake study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008; 88(4): 900-905.
      • Holmback I, Ericson U, Gullberg B, Wirfalt E. A high eating frequency is associated with an overall healthy lifestyle in middle-aged men and women and reduced likelihood of general and central obesity in men. Br J Nutr. 2010; 104(7): 1,065-1,073.
      • Howarth NC, Huang TT, Roberts SB, Lin BH, McCrory MA. Eating patterns and dietary composition in relation to BMI in younger and older adults. Int J Obes (Lond). 2007; 31(4): 675-684.
      • Kant AK, Graubard BI. Secular trends in patterns of self-reported food consumption of adult Americans: NHANES 1971-1975 to NHANES 1999-2002. Am J Clin Nutr 2006 Nov; 84 (5): 1,215-1,223.
      • Kent LM, Worsley A. Trends in BMI, diet and lifestyle between 1976 and 2005 in North Sydney. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 2009; 18 (3): 453-461.
      • Lundgren JD, Smith BM, Spresser C, Harkins P, Zolton L, Williams K. The relationship of night eating to oral health and obesity in community dental clinic patients. Gen Dent 2010; 58 (3): e134-139.
      • Morse SA, Ciechanowski PS, Katon WJ, Hirsch IB. Isn't this just bedtime snacking? The potential adverse effects of night-eating symptoms on treatment adherence and outcomes in patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care 2006; 29 (8): 1,800-1,804.
      • Nonino-Borges CB, Martins Borges R, Bavaresco M, Suen VM, Moreira AC, Marchini JS. Influence of meal time on salivary circadian cortisol rhythms and weight loss in obese women. Nutrition, 2007; 23 (5): 385-391.
      • Peixoto Mdo R, Benico MH, Jardim PC. The relationship between body mass index and lifestyle in a Brazilian adult population: A cross-sectional survey. Cad Saude Publica. 2007 Nov; 23(11): 2,694-2,740.

         

         
      • Schusdziarra V, Hausmann M, Wittke C, Mittermeier J, Kellner M, Wagenpfeil S, Erdmann J. Contribution of energy density and food quantity to short-term fluctuations of energy intake in normal weight and obese subjects. Eur J Nutr 2010; 49 (1): 37-43.
      • Striegel-Moore RH, Franko DL, Thompson D, Affenito S, Kraemer HC. Night eating:  Prevalence and demographic correlates. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2006 Jan; 14 (1): 139-147.
      • Tholin S, Lindroos A, Tynelius P, Akerstedt T, Stunkard AJ, Bulik CM, Rasmussen F.  Prevalence of night eating in obese and non-obese twins. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2009 May; 17 (5): 1,050-1,055.  
      • Uchigata Y, Iwamoto Y. Survey of dietary habits in obese patients with type 2 diabetes treated with either OHA or insulin injections in Japan. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2007; 77(3): 371-376.
      • Whybrow S, Mayer C, Kirk TR, Mazlan N, Stubbs RJ. Effect of two weeks' mandatory snack consumption on energy intake and energy balance. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2007; 15(3): 673-685.

         

  • Search Plan and Results: AWM: Meal and Snack Pattern 2011
     
• Intervention
  What is the relationship between breakfast consumption and weight change (weight loss, weight gain and/or weight maintenance)?

  • Conclusion

    The majority of observational research reported that breakfast consumption is associated with a lower BMI and decreased obesity risk, while omitting breakfast is associated with a higher BMI and increased obesity risk. Several studies suggest that cereal-based breakfasts are associated with lower BMI, while breakfasts that are very high in energy are associated with higher BMI. Further research is needed on the relative energy contribution and composition of breakfast.

  • Grade: II
    • Grade I means there is Good/Strong evidence supporting the statement;
    • Grade II is Fair;
    • Grade III is Limited/Weak;
    • Grade IV is Expert Opinion Only;
    • Grade V is Not Assignable.
    • High (A) means we are very confident that the true effect lies close to that of the estimate of the effect;
    • Moderate (B) means we are moderately confident in the effect estimate;
    • Low (C) means our confidence in the effect estimate is limited;
    • Very Low (D) means we have very little confidence in the effect estimate.
    • Ungraded means a grade is not assignable.
  • Evidence Summary: What is the relationship between breakfast consumption and weight change (weight loss, weight gain and/or weight maintenance)?
    • Detail
    • Quality Rating Summary
      For a summary of the Quality Rating results, click here.
    • Worksheets
      • Al-Rethaiaa AS, Fahmy AE, Al-Shwaiyat NM. Obesity and eating habits among college students in Saudi Arabia: A cross-sectional study. Nutr J 2010; 9: 39.
      • Bazzano LA, Song Y, Bubes V, Good CK, Manson JE, Liu S. Dietary intake of whole and refined grain breakfast cereals and weight gain in men. Obes Res. 2005, Nov; 13 (11): 1,952-1,960.
      • Grujic V, Cvejin MM, Nikolic EA, Dragnic N, Jovanovic VM, Kvrgic S, Travar S. Association between obesity and socioeconomic factors and lifestyle. Vojnosanit Pregl 2009; 66 (9): 705-710.
      • Huang CJ, Hu HT, Fan YC, Liao YM, Tsai PS. Associations of breakfast skipping with obesity and health-related quality of life: Evidence from a national survey in Taiwan. Int J Obes. 2010; 34(4): 720-725.
      • Kant AK, Graubard BI. Secular trends in patterns of self-reported food consumption of adult Americans: NHANES 1971-1975 to NHANES 1999-2002. Am J Clin Nutr 2006 Nov; 84 (5): 1,215-1,223.
      • Kent LM, Worsley A. Trends in BMI, diet and lifestyle between 1976 and 2005 in North Sydney. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 2009; 18 (3): 453-461.
      • Kent LM, Worsley A. Breakfast size is related to body mass index for men, but not women. Nutr Res. 2010; 30(4): 240-245.
      • Malinauskas BM, Raedeke TD, Aeby VG, Smith JL, Dallas MB. Dieting practices, weight perceptions and body composition: A comparison of normal weight, overweight and obese college females. Nutr J 2006; 5: 11.
      • Perusse-Lachance E, Tremblay A, Drapeau V. Lifestyle factors and other health measures in a Canadian university community. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2010; 35(4): 498-506.
      • Purslow LR, Sandhu MS, Forouhi N, Young EH, Luben RN, Welch AA, Khaw KT, Bingham SA, Wareham NJ. Energy intake at breakfast and weight change: Prospective study of 6,764 middle-aged men and women. Am J Epidemiol. 2008 Jan 15; 167 (2): 188-192. Epub 2007 Dec 12.
      • Uchigata Y, Iwamoto Y. Survey of dietary habits in obese patients with type 2 diabetes treated with either OHA or insulin injections in Japan. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2007; 77(3): 371-376.
      • van der Heijden AA, Hu FB, Rimm EB, van Dam RM. A prospective study of breakfast consumption and weight gain among US men. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2007 Oct; 15(10): 2,463-2,469.
      • Williams P. Breakfast and the diets of Australian adults: An analysis of data from the 1995 National Nutrition Survey. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2005; 56 (1): 65-79.
  • Search Plan and Results: AWM: Breakfast Consumption 2011